Vitamins

WHAT ARE VITAMINS? 
  Vitamins are organic substances which are necessary food factors required in small amounts to regulate energy transformation and metabolism.
Vitamins are not energy sources but they protect from diseases and work as food catalysts too.
Vitamins are effective in very small amounts (mg or mg).
Every vitamin has a specific function and deficiency of a vitamin in diet causes a specific disease.
Vitamins are not formed in the body except vitamin D.
Therefore, they must be taken from their sources.

There are two types of vitamins:
1. water soluble vitamins (C, B)
2. fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)
 
VITAMIN A:
The main function of vitamin A is to form VISUAL PIGMENT. It is essential for normal growth, healthy teeth, saves us from infectious diseases, night vision, normal bone and teeth development.
It transports nutrients across the cell membrane.
Vitamin A is an antioxidant.
It increases iron metabolism.
 
FOOD SOURCES:
  Milk, egg yolk , liver fats, cod liver oil, carrot, apricots,Peach, butter, green leafy vegetables, cheese
 
DEFICIENCY
Deficiency of vitamin A causes:
 Night blindness
 Xerophthalmia
 Respiratory infection
 Allergies
 Loss of teeth enamel
 Gum disease
 Decrease in immunity
DOSE
Male : 1.00 mg per day
Female : 0.8 mg per day
 
OVERDOSE
Overdose of Vitamin A may cause:
 Headache
 Fatigue
 Skin problems
 Bone pain
 Dry skin
 Thickening of bone
 Brittle nails
 Constipation
 long term use can cause hair loss
 liver damage
 increase in blood fats/cholesterol.

VITAMIN B1
 
It helps body cells to convert carbohydrates into energy.
Vitamin B1 plays an important role in energy metabolism.
It is essential for growth. Protect us from digestive disturbance.
Healthy heart function. Healthy nerve cells.
Protect us from herpes zoster. Helpful in healthy brain functioning. Useful in anemia.
FOOD SOURCES
sunflower seeds, Liver, kidney, cereal, peanuts, beans, eggs-yolk, legumes, fish, meat, milk, yeast etc.
 
DEFICIENCY
 Deficiency causes beri beri, cardiac failure, Loss of weight, digestive disturbance, weakness , nerve damage, constipation.
 
DAILY DOSE
 Male : 1.4 mg per day
Female : 1.0 mg per day
 
OVERDOSE
 It has very few side effects in case of overdose which includes:
 headache
 itching
 irritability
 flushing

VITAMIN B2

 Vitamin B2 is essential for normal body growth, red cell production, prevents us from rheumatoid arthritis, migraine, skin disorders, Cataract prevention and it is a helper for other B- vitamins.
FOOD SOURCES
 Milk, eggs, liver, fish, yeast, fruits, green leafy vegetables, wheat , pea, soybean.
 
DEFICIENCY
Dry & cracked skin, inflammation on mouth, anemia, eye diseases, slow wound healing ,poor general health, scales on nails, cracks at corners of mouth, sickle cell anemia.
 
DAILY DOSE
Male : 1.6 mg per day
Female : 1.2 mg per day
 
OVERDOSE
  Itching
 Burning sensations
 Numbness


VITAMIN B3
 Vitamin B3 is a metaboliser for amino acids and carbohydrates.
It is required in the synthesis of fats.
Essential for healthy skin.
Cell respiration.
Used to decrease cholesterol and control diabetes.
Proper functioning of nervous system.
Mental alertness
FOOD SOURCES
Red meat, liver, yeast, Milk,peanut, fish, eggs, Legumes,coffee etc.
DEFICIENCY
Deficiency of vitamin B3 includes:
 Mental disturbances
 Diarrhea
 Pellagra
 Skin lesions
 Decreased appetite
DAILY DOSE
 Male : 18 mg per day
Female : 13 mg per day
OVERDOSE
 Liver damage
 Skin flushing
 Itching
 Heartburn
 Peptic ulcer

VITAMIN B5

 VITAMIN B5 is very important in metabolic system and stress resistance.
It is also helpful in the synthesis of antibodies, fats, proteins and hemoglobin.
Vitamin B5 plays very important role in the secretion of hormones.
It slows down aging process.
Prevents from arthritis and helpful against wrinkles.
Vitamin B5 is also known as anti-stress vitamin because it relieves physical and emotional stress.

FOOD SOURCES
Yeast, chicken, fish, Kidneys, beef, liver ,Peanuts, mushrooms, soybean , eggs , sunflower seeds , lentils,cashews ,fresh vegetables,wheat.
 
DEFICIENCY
Deficiency symptoms of vitamin B5 include:
 Frequent infection
 Cardiovascular disorders
 Digestive disorders
 neurological disorders
 Low blood cholesterol level
 Decrease in serum potassium
 General weakness
 
DAILY DOSE
 No recommended dosage however 10mg to 100 mg per day is necessary.
 
OVERDOSE
 Not toxic in high dosage (less than 10 grams per day).
Sensitive to teeth if taken 1.5 grams per day for a long period regularly.

VITAMIN B6

 Vitamin B6 is involved in the following functions:
 Protein and fatty acid metabolizer
 Red cells production.
 Healthy brain function.
 Helps to synthesize antibodies.
FOOD SOURCES
 Milk, liver, yeast, green leafy vegetables , cereals, kidney, fish, chicken, eggs, nuts, banana etc.

DEFICIENCY
  Skin disorders
  Anemia
 Seizures in infant
 Memory problem
 Low absorption of fats, proteins and sugar
 Water retention in body

DAILY DOSE

1.3 mg to 2.00 mg per day

 OVERDOSE
 Large dosages may cause neurological disorders.
It is sensitive to sun light and heat.
Vitamin B2 and zinc are necessary to absorb Vitamin B6.

VITAMIN B12

 Vitamin B12 is necessary in the formation of red blood cell and for normal growth.
Prevents us from anemia, allergies, asthma and skin disorders.
FOOD SOURCES
 Liver , fish , Meat, Eggs, yeast , Kidney , Milk , Dairy products
 
DEFICIENCY
 Deficiency of Vitamin B12 may include:
 Anemia
 Fatigue
 Memory loss
 Depression
 Confusion
 
DAILY DOSE
 2.4 micro gram per day
 
OVERDOSE
Not known


VITAMIN C
 Vitamin C is essential for:
 In the synthesis of collagen in connective tissue.
 Healing of wounds & fractures
 Facilitates absorption of iron.
 Helps in haemoglobin formation.
 Formation of steroid hormones
 Reduces the chances of infections
 prevents from scurvy
 Antioxidant
 For healthy gums
FOOD SOURCES
 All citrus fruits such as orange, lemon, guava , strawberries, Pineapple,grape fruit, tomato, cabbage, cauliflower 
DEFICIENCY
 Decrease in body resistance to infection
 Bleeding of teeth.
 Scurry
 Anaemia
 poor wound healing
 painful joint
DAILY DOSE
60 mg per day

OVERDOSE
  Diarrhea
 Painful urination
 Flatulence
 Skin rash

VITAMIN D

 Vitamin D controls the absorption of calcium & Phosphorus in our body to develop healthy bones & teeth. It is very very necessary for the development of bones and teeth. You should not avoid the importance of vitamin D because it helps in the absorption of calcium which in turn forms strong bones.
People deficient in vitamin D suffer a great deal in old age, Therefore you must care about it.
SOURCES
 Fish oil, liver, egg yellow, milk etc.
It is also produce on skin by sun light
DEFICIENCY
  Softness of bones
 Tooth decay
 Rickets
DAILY DOSE
 400 international units per day
 
OVERDOSE
 Extra heavy doses of vitamin D are harmful and cause loss of appetite , thickening of bones , Softness of tissues and calcification of joints.


VITAMIN E

 Vitamin E an antioxidant and it slows down the aging process. It is helpful in skin treatment. If you want to be young,healthy,energetic and good skin texture with no wrinkles you must add vitamin E in your diet. Maintenance of cell membrane,normal function of muscular and vascular system are also due to vitamin E.
FOOD SOURCES
fish, meat, eggs,Green leafy vegetables, oil, wheat, milk.
DEFICIENCY
 Deficiency of vitamin E may causes:
 premature aging
 Fragility of red blood cells.
 skin problems
 Respiratory problems.
DAILY DOSE
 Male :10 mg per day
Female : 8 mg per day

VITAMIN K
 Vitamin K is used to control blood clotting mechanism.
FOOD SOURCES
 Green leafy vegetables, vegetable oils, meat, liver, milk, bran, broccoli.
Vitamin K is also produced by intestinal bacteria.
DEFICIENCY
 Failure of blood clotting mechanism
DOSE
 Male : 80 mg per day
Female : 70 mg per day
 
OVERDOSE
  Jaundice
 Anemia

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates:

Introduction of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the organic molecules that are composed of elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Classification of carbohydrate

Carbohydrates are classified into three groups based on the number of sugar units and upon their behaviour towards hydrolysis. They are
>Monosaccharides
>Oligosaccharides and
>Polysaccharides

Monosaccharides:

These are simplest group of carbohydrates and are referred as simple sugars as they are sweet in taste. 
They cannot be further hydrolyzed to simpler compounds.
They have the general formula C_n(H₂O)_n

Examples: Glucose and fructose

Oligosaccharides:

These carbohydrates liberate two to ten monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis.

 They are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, etc. based on the number of monosaccharide units. 

For e.g., disaccharides like sucrose produce two molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis. 

Polysaccharides:

These carbohydrates liberate a large number of monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis. They are usually amorphous, insoluble in water and tasteless and are called non-sugars. 

They are again sub-divided into two types. They are homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides

Open and ring structure of Sucrose:

Sucrose is made up of a-D-Glucose and b-D-fructose held together by a glycosidic bond, between C₁ of a-glucose and C₂ of b-fructose. The reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in glycosidic bond, so it is a non-reducing sugar.

Ring structures:

Maltose:

Maltose is made up of two a-D-glucose (in pyranose form) units held together by a(1-->4) glycosidic bond. As there is a free aldehyde group at C-1 position of the second glucose molecule, maltose is known as reducing sugar. Maltose forms osazones. The enzyme that hydrolyses maltose is maltase.

lactose:

Lactose is made up of b-D-galactose and b-D-glucose held together by b(1-->4) glycosidic bond. As the aldehyde group at C-1 position of glucose is free, lactose is known as reducing sugar. Lactose forms osazones.

Partial representation  of structure  of  starch:

Starch is a white amorphous powder, insoluble in cold water. 

It solution in water gives a blue color with iodine solution. 

The blue color disappears on heating and reappears on cooling. 

Partial Representation of structure of 

cellulose:

It is a colourless amorphous solid which decomposes on heating. 

It is largely linear and its individual strands align with each other through multiple hydrogen bonds.

Glycogen:

The structure of glycogen consists of long polymer chains of glucose units connected by an alpha acetal linkage. 

The graphic on the left shows a very small portion of a glycogen chain. 

All of the monomer units are alpha-D-glucose, and all the alpha acetal links connect C # 1 of one glucose to C # 4 of the next glucose.

Carbohydrates are source of energy /functions:

1)Carbohydrates are most abundant dietary source of energy for all organisms.

2)They supply energy and serve as storage form of energy.

3)Carbohydrates such as glucose, fructose, starch, glycogen, etc. provide energy for functioning of living organisms.

4)Carbohydrates are utilizes as raw materials for several industries. For e.g., paper, plastics, textiles etc.

5)Polysaccharides like cellulose act as chief structural material for cell walls in plants.

6)Carbohydrates participate in cellular functions such as cell growth, adhesion and fertilization

Chemical Bonding

Chemical bond:-  

Chemical bond is the attractive force which holds together the constituents atoms or ions  or molecules present in a substance.

There are three types of chemical bonds: 

Ionic Bond or electrovalent bond

Covalent Bond

Co-ordinate Bond.



Octet Rule: 


Atoms form chemical bonds in order to complete their octet i.e. eight electrons in their valence shell.




Ionic bond or electrovalent bond:

"Ionic bond is formed by the complete transfer of one or more electrons from the outermost energy shell of one atom to the outermost energy shell of another atom". 

Ex:-

When sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) are combined, the sodium atoms each lose an electron, forming cations (Na+), and the chlorine atoms each gain an electron to form anions (Cl−). These ions are then attracted to each other in a 1:1 ratio to form sodium chloride (NaCl).






Factors  favouring of Ionic bond:

1)low ionisation energy of the metal atoms.

2)Higher electron affinity of non-metal atoms.

3)Higher value of lattice energy of the resulting Ionic crystals.

4)Large radius of cations and small radius of anions.

5)Large differences of eletronegativity between the combining atoms.




Co-valent Bond:

A covalent bond is a force which binds atoms of same or different elements by mutual sharing of electrons.

Ex:-1:



 2:-







Factors favouring covalent bonds:



1)The combining atoms should have small difference in electronegativity.

2)The combining atoms should obtain octate structure by sharing one or more electrons.

3)High electron affinity.

4)Small atomic size.

5)High ionisation energy.





Bond Length:



"The distance between the nuclei of two atoms bonded together is called bond length".







The lengths of double bonds are less than the lengths of single bonds between the same two  atoms, and triple bonds are even shorter than double bonds.
Single bond > Double bond > Triple bond (decreasing bond length)




HYBRIDIZATION:


The mixing or merging of dissimilar orbitals of similar energies to form new orbitals is known as hybridisation.
               There are many different types of hybridization depending upon the type of orbitals involved in mixing such as sp3, sp2 , sp. sp3d. sp3d2 , etc.


Formation of methane (CH4):
    In methane carbon atom acquires sp3 hybrid states as described below: 
Here, one orbital of 2s-sub-shell and three orbitals of  2p-sub-shell of excited carbon atom undergo hybridization to  form four sp3 hybrid orbitals. 
  The process involving promotion of 2s-electron followed by hybridization.






 
As pointed out earlier the sp3 hybrid orbitals of carbon atom are directed towards the comers of regular tetrahedron.
Each of the sp3 hybrid orbitals overlaps axially with half filled Is-orbital of hydrogen atom constituting a sigma bond.


Because of sp3 hybridization of carbon atom, CH4 molecule has tetrahedral shape.. 


Formation of ethane:


In ethane both the carbon atoms assume sp3 hybrid state. 
One of the hybrid orbitals of carbon atom overlaps axially with similar orbital of the other carbon atoms to form sp3-sp3 sigma bond.
 The other three hybrid orbitals of each carbon atom are used informing sp3-s sigma bonds with hydrogen atoms. 






Each C-H bond in ethane is sp3-s sigma bond with bond length 109 pm. The C-C bond is sp3-sr sigma bond with bond length 154 pm.

Formation of ammonia (NH)3 molecule;


In NH3 molecule the nitrogen atom adopts sp3-hybrid state.
Three of sp3-hybrid orbitals of the N atom are used for forming sp3 (sigma) bonds with H atoms.
The fourth sp3-hybrid orbital carry lone pair of electrons.
The relatively larger lone pair bond pair interactions cause HNH angle to decrease from 109°.281 to 107°. 
The ground state, hybrid state of N atom and orbital overlap in are shown in Fig.










Formation of water (H2O) molecule.


In H2O molecule, oxygen atom adopts sp3 hybrid state.
Two of the sp3-hybrid-orbitals of oxygen contains lone pairs of electrons whereas the other two hybrid orbitals constitutesp3-scr (sigma) bonds with H atoms. 
The lone pair orbitals exert relatively greater repulsive interactions on bond pair-orbitals causing HOH angle to decrease from 109°.28′ to 104.5°. 
The hybridization Of O atom along with orbital overlap in  molecule are shown in Fig.

Enzymes- types and their functions for dmlt and paramedical students

Different types of Enzymes in the human body and their functions:

What are enzymes and what is their function?

1)Enzymes are naturally occurring proteins that are found in the bodies of certain living things, including humans and other animals, and that cause chemical changes such as breaking down food in the stomach.

2)Within the human body, enzymes can be found in bodily fluids, such as blood, saliva, the gastric juices or the stomach and fluids in the intestines.

3)In general, enzymes serve as catalysts for biological functions, including natural, involuntary bodily functions, such as blood clotting.

Enzymes have three main characteristics.

1) They increase  the rate of a natural chemical reaction.
2)They typucally only react with one specific  substrate or reactant,
3) Enzyme activity is regulated and controlled within the cell  through several different means, including regulation by inhibitors and activators.

  There are 6 major classes of enzymes found in the body.

The following are the names of enzymes and their functions.

Ligase:
This enzyme in the body requires ATP  and binds nucleotides together in the nucleic acids.
It also binds simple sugars in polysaccarides.

Lyase:
This enzyme in the body breaks the bonds between carbon atoms or carbon nitrogen bond.

Hydrolase:
This enzyme in the body breaks large molecules into similar molecules by adding a water molecule.

Transferase:
This enzyme in the body cuts a part of one molecule and attaches it to another molecule.

Isomerase:
The atoms in a molecule are rearranged without changing their chemical formula.
This helps in getting carbohydrate molecules for certain enzymatic processes.

Oxido-reductase:
This enzyme removes hydrogen or electrons from one molecule and donates it to another molecule.

This enzyme is mainly involved in mitochondrial energy production.

Kinase:
This enzyme in the body attaches a phosphate group to a high energy  bond.
It is a very important enzyme required for ATP production and activation of certain enzymes.

Structure of Atoms for all paramedical students kaarnataka

Structure of Atoms:
          An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all of the chemical properties of an element.

Atoms consist of three basic particles: protons, electrons, and neutrons.

The nucleus (center) of the atom contains the protons (positively charged) and the neutrons (no charge).

Atoms have different properties based on the arrangement and number of their basic particles.

Subatomic Particles:

Protons:

Protons were discovered by Ernest Rutherford in the year 19191.

Protons are having positively charge.

Protons are having mass is- 1.672x10^-24kg

Protons are exist in nucleous.

Electrons:

Electrons were discovered by J.J.Thomson in 1897.

Electrons are having negatively charge. 

Electrons are having mass is- 9.109x10^-28kg

Electrons surround the atomic nucleus in pathways called orbitals.
While electrons are revolving they lose or gain energy.

The distribution of electrons in orbit by using formula 2n^2

Neutrons:

Neutrons are having zero charges.

Neutrons are having mass is 1.6749x10^-27 kg.

Determination of Equivalent Mass Method — I (Hydrogen Displacement Method):

Principle:

The known mass of a metal to react with dilute acids and volume of hydrogen produced in the reaction is measured and the equivalent mass of an element is calculated using formula

o This method is useful for the metals which react, or dissolves in mineral acids and liberates hydrogen gas. e.g. Mg, Zn, Al, Ca, Zn, Sn etc.

1) Clean and weigh accurately a piece of metal (Mg / Zn / Al) whose equivalent mass is to be found and place it in a conical flask containing distilled water.
2) The mouth of the conical flask is fitted with a cork through which side tube (gas carrying tube) and a thistle tube are inserted as shown in the diagram.
3) Using side tube the conical flask is connected to graduated (calibrated) test tube called Eudiometer.
4) Eudiometer tube is completely filled with water and is inverted on the side tube as shown in the diagram.
5) The bottom part of thistle tube is dipped in the water in the flask.
6) Mineral acid like HCI is added to the flask through the thistle funnel. 

7) The reaction between the metal and acid takes place and hydrogen gas is liberated which is collected in eudiometer by downward displacement of water.

8) When the evolution of gas has stopped the mouth of the eudiometer tube is closed with a thumb and carried to a tray of water where the level of water inside and outside the tube is equalised and the volume of hydrogen gas is read at atmospheric pressure.

Observations: 

The weight of metal piece = W g

The volume of hydrogen collected = V dm3. 

Atmospheric pressure = P mm 

Aqueous tension= f mm of Hg

Absolute temperature = T K

Calculations: 

Now the volume of hydrogen at S.T.P. from the above data using following formula is calculated. 

 Where Volume of hydrogen at S.T.P. Vo dm3, 

Pressure at S.T.P. Po mm of Hg = 760 mm = 1.013 x 10^5 N/m2 

The absolute temperature at S.T.P. To K = 273 K